RESUMO A reconstrução da histórica econômica do Brasil desde a independência por Portugal (1822) pode levar a uma nova compreensão do seu crescimento econômico. A ideia enraizada de que o Brasil podia ter feito mais implica a necessidade de se analisar cada fase do seu desenvolvimento. Neste artigo, nós fornecemos uma perspectiva do crescimento econômico brasileiro e seu processo de real convergência no muito longo prazo (1822-2019). Por um lado, esta revisão indica que as mudanças estruturais observadas na metade do século XX foram cruciais em promover o crescimento e a real convergência do país ante países tecnologicamente avançados. Por outro lado, as condições institucionais precárias e a deficiência na formação de capital humano são fatores críticos subjacentes a inabilidade do Brasil em estabelecer um crescimento econômico robusto e sustentável desde tempos coloniais.

ABSTRACT The reconstruction of the economic history of Brazil since independence from Portugal (1822) may lead to a new understanding of its economic growth. The deep-rooted idea that Brazil could have done better means there is a need to delve into each phase of its development. In this paper, we provide a very long-run perspective (1822-2019) of Brazil’s economic growth and process of real convergence. On the one hand, this review indicates that structural changes observed in the middle of the 20th century were crucial in promoting the country’s growth and real convergence with technologically advanced countries. On the other hand, poor institutional conditions and deficient human capital formation have emerged since colonial times as critical factors underlying Brazil’s inability to establish robust and sustainable economic growth.

There are a vast number of studies on the relationship between R&D and exports. However, the results are not always clear-cut. This study evaluates whether, in the case of a small, open and peripheral country in which exports are the engine of economic growth despite a noticeable laggardness in terms of R&D, the firms' R&D impacts on and/or is influenced by their exports, as well as whether the interrelation between R&D and exports impacts on the performance of firms. Using an unique dataset comprising all (more than 340 thousands) non-financial companies based in Portugal, over the period 2006-2012, estimations based on bivariate probit models, which provide the simultaneous estimation of the two decisions (R&D and exports), taking into account the correlation between the estimation errors of the equations for R&D and exports, confirm there is complementarity between R&D and exports, which means that engaging in R&D activities will increase the firm's probability of engaging in export activities. Additionally, engaging in export activities will also increase the probability of engaging in R&D. The results also provide support for the hypothesis that more productive firms self-select into exporting activities and also provide support for the learning-by-exporting hypothesis. Finally, based on a panel model we further found that R&D and exports have a positive effect on sales growth, which is enhanced when both activities occur simultaneously.

Hay un gran número de estudios sobre la relación entre la I+D y las exportaciones. Sin embargo, los resultados no siempre son bien definidos. Este estudio evalúa si en el caso de un país pequeño, abierto y periférico -en el que las exportaciones son el motor del crecimiento económico a pesar de un retraso notable en términos de I+D- la I+D que realizan las empresas impacta en o está influenciada por sus exportaciones, así como si la interrelación entre la I+D y las exportaciones impacta el desempeño de las empresas. Mediante un conjunto de datos único que comprende todas las empresas no financieras con sede en Portugal (más de 340 miles), para el periodo 2006-2012, las estimaciones basadas en modelos probit bivariados, que proporcionan la estimación simultánea de las dos decisiones (I+D y exportaciones), tomando en cuenta la correlación entre los errores de estimación de ambas ecuaciones, confirman que hay complementariedad entre la I+D y las exportaciones, lo que significa que la participación en las actividades de I+D aumentará la probabilidad de la empresa de participar en las actividades de exportación. Además, la participación en actividades de exportación también aumentará la probabilidad de participar en la I+D. Los resultados también proporcionan apoyo a la hipótesis de que las empresas más productivas autoseleccionan las actividades exportadoras y a la hipótesis de aprendizaje mediante la exportación. Finalmente, basados en un modelo de panel hemos encontrado que la I+D y las exportaciones tienen un efecto positivo sobre el crecimiento de las ventas, que se ve reforzado cuando se producen simultáneamente ambas actividades.

A large number of studies have emphasized the spatial proximity of economic activity and its relation to the spatiality of knowledge creation in various types of connections. Far less attention has been paid to the understanding of the determinants of 'cultural' and geographical proximity in international R&D cooperation projects involving SMEs and the role of the quality of the Regional Innovation System (RIS). Using a database of completed European Cooperative Research projects, we conclude that: 1) technologically more complex projects are more likely to involve 'culturally' and geographically distant partners; 2) RIS related variables determine 'cultural' proximity but not geographical proximity; 3) at first sight surprisingly, international cooperation projects involving the 1st promoters of innovation-led regions (high patent propensity and high human capital levels) are culturally more distant.